Thomas Tompion Thomas Tompion is regarded as the ‘Father of English clockmaking’.[1] He produced exceptional clocks and watches, dominated the market, and was the first maker to apply mass production methods to high-quality watches with balance springs. His pioneering approach to manufacturing also made him a leader in his field: he was the first manufacturer ever to serialise his product and to use subcontracted parts to reduce costs and increase efficiency. He also catered to a broad range of customers, from royalty and the aristocracy to the gentry (people of good social standing but who were not nobility).[2] As a result, his workshop managed to produce some 5000 watches and around 650 clocks during his professional life. In his time, Tompion’s product so dominated the market that a watch became known as a Tompion, just as today a vacuum cleaner is often called a Hoover. What is most astounding is the quality of Tompion’s vast output, characterised by his sound design and use of high-quality materials. Also, his timekeepers were incredibly beautiful and often set new standards for case design and decoration. One of the few clockmakers to be invited to join the Royal Society, Tompion rubbed shoulders with the great and good of England’s elite scientific community. He was also part of the team enlisted by the First Astronomer Royal, John Flamsteed, to plan and build the then-new Royal Observatory at Greenwich. Tompion famously collaborated with the famed polymath Robert Hooke and was one of the first to produce watches featuring Hooke’s balance spring design, which had the potential to be much more accurate than earlier watches. Tompion was also very active within his own vibrant community of London clockmakers. He collaborated with Daniel Quare, was reportedly friends with Joseph Knibb, and was on the ground at the development of many innovations, such as rack striking, the tic-tac escapement and the dead-beat escapement.[3] He is also credited with inventing the cylinder escapement and was probably the first to produce a sidereal regulator.[4] Yet no details of Tompion’s early years survive. Beyond the knowledge that he was born in Bedfordshire and baptised on 25 July 1639, nothing is known of where he was trained or how he acquired his skills. Tompion’s father was a blacksmith, and logic dictates that he received some form of training in metalsmithing from his father. Still, details of his early life are lost to the mists of time, as Tompion seems to appear out of nowhere in London, fully formed as a ‘Great clockmaker’. What is known about Tompion has been extensively documented by recent biographers and is beyond the scope of this account. For those interested, I recommend seeking out a copy of the book Thomas Tompion – 300 Years, published by horologists Jeremy Evans, Jonathan Carter and Ben Wright in 2013. This is the most comprehensive account of Tompion’s life and work. Although currently out of print, it is available in major libraries and through reputable second-hand book dealers such as Abe Books. A list of Tompion references and further reading is also provided at the end of this account. What follows are a few interesting details about his life and work, particularly regarding the making of the Tompion clocks exhibited on Clocktime. A ‘Great clockmaker’ appears Tompion does not appear in the historical record until September 1671, when he becomes a Brother of the Worshipful Company of Clockmakers by redemption after paying a fine of 30 shillings. His joining the company in this way indicates that he was making and selling clocks in London out of regulation prior to this. Obviously, he came to the attention of the guild and was compelled to become a member to make up for this offence. At this time, the London clockmaking market was regulated by the Worshipful Company of Clockmakers, which was chartered in 1631 by King Charles I. Typically, young would-be clockmakers entered this system by way of undertaking a seven-year apprenticeship with a master clockmaker. Upon completion, the new clockmaker would join the Company as a journeyman, usually working for his former master or another master until he could manage his own workshop. Thus, it was unusual for Tompion to appear as a fully formed ‘Great clockmaker’ with no record of an apprenticeship of any kind in London or elsewhere. Horologist Dr John C Taylor thinks it is likely that Tompion initially came to London to ply his trade as a blacksmith, making nails, brackets and hinges. At the time, there were ample opportunities for someone with these skills, thanks to the ambitious programme underway to rebuild the city. King Charles II had initiated this programme in response to the devastation caused by the Great Fire of 1666, which had destroyed 13,200 houses, 87 parish churches, St Paul’s Cathedral and most of the city’s buildings. The King even commissioned the English architect Sir Christopher Wren, who was also the King’s Surveyor of Works, to rebuild 51 churches lost to the fire. Perhaps it was this opportunity that initially drew young Tompion to London and allowed him to cut his teeth as a clockmaker. The Clockmakers’ Company records show that Tompion was admitted to the guild as a ‘Great clockmaker’, which means that he specialised in the making of turret (or tower) clocks. However, there is no record of any Tompion house or turret clocks on any Wren-churches.[5] Recent biographers suggest that Tompion may have been mentored by the clockmakers Edward East and Ahasuerus Fromanteel. While plausible, there is no evidence to support this scenario. During this time, Tompion appears to have also befriended the clockmaker Joseph Knibb, who arrived in London around the same time as Tompion. From 1671, however, the rest is history. Tompion hit the ground running and soon established his business at the corner of Water Lane and Fleet Street, a premiere address for a London workshop and shop front.[6] Tompion establishes himself Around 1675, Tompion manufactured the clock known as the Olivewood Tompion, which is exhibited on Clocktime. It is the earliest known surviving Tompion clock and may very well be his first spring table clock. It is also an early example of the incorporation of exotic woods into the cases of luxury clocks, hence its name, the Olivewood Tompion. When this clock was made, it would have been difficult for Tompion to finance its production. He was just starting out, and he had no capital nor an established reputation. To make a name for himself, he had to be pragmatic as well as ambitious. He did this by using and adapting existing parts to produce this clock and by making bold stylistic choices. His pragmatic approach makes sense also in terms of the economic landscape of London at the time. The London market was still reeling from the effects of the Great Fire as well as recent waves of plague that had hit the city between 1665 and 1670. Materials, especially brass, were scarce. Thus, it was cheaper and more feasible to use and adapt existing parts than it was to make new ones. Also, the availability of clockmakers was limited. For instance, the talented clockmaker Samuel Knibb, who ran the Knibb workshop in London, died from plague around 1670. This is why Tompion’s friend Joseph Knibb had come to London, to take over his cousin’s workshop. Dr Taylor argues that Joseph Knibb appears to have made clock parts from Samuel’s workshop available to Tompion for the making of the Olivewood Tompion, based on similarities between the Olivewood Tompion and two clocks from the Knibb workshop. Tompion then used exotic and expensive olivewood for his case and altered the appearance of the case and dial. The result was a clean, new design like no other. London’s new clockmaker had arrived. Following the making of the Olivewood Tompion, Tompion’s business expanded, and he was compelled to move to larger premises on Fleet Street. Over time, he also rose through the ranks of the Worshipful Company of Clockmakers. In 1691, he was made an Assistant and in 1703 he served as the Company’s Master. He remained an active member for the rest of his life, attending Company meetings until his death in 1713. Tompion’s masterpieces on Clocktime In addition to the Olivewood Tompion, you can experience several of Tompion’s masterpieces on Clocktime. The Sussex Tompion table clock is scheduled for exhibition on Clocktime later this year. It was made around 1680 and is a true expression of Tompion's engineering genius. This highly complex, two train, grande sonnerie striking clock is also one of the earliest examples of a repeating clock made by any clockmaker. With its making, Tompion strove to achieve accuracy and repeatability regardless of cost. The sumptuous Selby Lowndes Tompion table clock is currently exhibited on Clocktime. Made around 1693, the design of its complex movement is further testament to Tompion’s pursuit of technical excellence. It is one of the earliest full grande sonnerie clocks known. This means that it strikes the hour and the quarters (every 15, 30 and 45 minutes). This clock was probably royally commissioned by King William III, and its magnificent architectural case was probably designed by the King’s famous Huguenot cabinet-maker Daniel Marot.[7] The Queen Mary Tompion table clock is also scheduled for exhibition on Clocktime later this year. Made around 1693 for Queen Mary II, Tompion modified the red turtleshell Boulle case (based on a design by Marot) to fit the movement before it was presented to his royal patron. Also exhibited on Clocktime is the Millbourn Tompion Longcase. Made around 1699, it is the very essence of refined quality and is one of the most beautifully preserved examples of Tompion’s ‘Type 3’ clock cases. This case type was used for Tompion’s top-of-the-range line produced at the height of his career.[8] The clock’s burr walnut-veneered case, (then) state-of-the-art month-going movement – and indeed all its features – signal that it was probably made for one of Tompion’s aristocratic clients. Later this year, Clocktime will also reveal the Pelham Tompion Sundial exhibit – the first sundial to be shown on the digital museum. Made around 1700, the bronze square horizontal sundial was probably commissioned by Sir Thomas Pelham for Halland House. Perhaps Pelham used the sundial to set the time on the two Tompion clocks (Nos. 284 and 545) that he owned. As a courtesy to his patron, Tompion helpfully engraved setting instructions above the sundial’s gnomon. Finally, visitors can also experience the highly complex Sidereal Tompion Regulator on Clocktime. Completed in 1708 by Tompion and his then partner Edward Banger, this precision clock is thought to be the first sidereal regulator.[9] It is also unique within Tompion’s vast production, because it is his most complicated geared clock, and it is the only known Tompion clock to show geared mean solar and sidereal time.[10] It was probably part of a group of high-end commissions known as the Denmark group, which were named as such because they were commissioned by Tompion’s royal patron, Prince George of Denmark.[11] When Tompion met Hooke It appears that Tompion met the polymath Robert Hooke at the Royal Society as early as 1674. Despite Hooke’s well-known irascibility, the two men got on well and spent much time together. Based on mentions in Hooke’s detailed diaries, they met regularly to discuss the engineering of watches and work on projects. Entries in Hooke’s diary include many mentions of Tompion, such as ‘Tompion here from 10 till 10. He brought clockwork to show’, and ‘Tompion here all day. Brought home 1 watch and took another’. Hooke also recounts: To Tompkin (Tompion) in Water Lane. Much Discourse with him about Watches. Told him the way of making an engine for finishing wheels, and a way how to make a dividing plate; about the form of an arch; about another way of teeth work; about pocket watches and many other things.[12] One project that they worked on together was Hooke’s horary quadrant. This instrument was finished by 5 July 1674. The Royal Society’s minutes show that when Hooke presented the quadrant to the Society in December that same year, he made a point of mentioning Tompion by name. The quadrant was received with acclaim. Tompion and Hooke also produced an early watch for King Charles II. It featured double balances geared together to eliminate errors of motion. It was signed Robert Hooke invent. 1658 T. Tompion fecit, 1675. The watch was delivered to the King for testing in early May 1675 and became known as the ‘King’s Watch’. Hooke recorded in his diary: With the King and shewed him my new spring watch, Sir J Moore and Tompion there. The king most graciously pleased with it and commended it far beyond (Christiaan) Huygens’s. He promised me a patent. Regrettably, the prototype did not keep time as well as had been promised, and an English patent was not granted. Perhaps due to the stress of the situation, Tompion and Hooke famously fell out in Christmas of that same year. Still, with Hooke’s encouragement, Tompion was one of the first to produce watches with Hooke’s balance spring design, which had the potential to be much more accurate than earlier watches. It was also through Hooke that Tompion came to be known by King Charles II (who founded the Royal Society) and the nobility. Tompion also became a member of the Royal Society in 1680. He is one of the few early clockmakers ever to do so. The others are George Graham and William Harrison. Innovation and collaboration Tompion is credited with the invention of numerous horological innovations and probably played a role in the development of many more. In 1675, Tompion was part of the small team assembled by John Flamsteed, the First Astronomer Royal, to design, build and furnish the new Royal Observatory at Greenwich. Flamsteed’s team included the English mathematician, surveyor and patron of astronomy Jonas Moore, as well as Wren and Hooke. As part of this project, Tompion fitted an early iteration of the dead-beat escapement to the two clocks that he made for the new observatory. To accomplish this, he apparently worked with Richard Towneley, the mathematician and astronomer who is credited with inventing the dead-beat escapement around 1675.[13] When Joseph Knibb invented the tic-tac escapement, sometime during the 1670s, he and Tompion appear to have been friends, sharing parts and materials as discussed above. As such, it bears consideration that Tompion could have invented this type of escapement or had a hand in its development. For an example of the tic-tac escapement, see Knibb’s Roman Striking Table Clock dated to 1677, which is exhibited on Clocktime. Tompion also probably had a hand in developing Edward Barlow’s rack striking around 1680. Horologist John Robey argues that it is possible that the development of this design came out of ‘an amalgam of ideas by Barlow, Tompion, Knibb and Hooke’.[14] Rack-striking made the repeating clock possible. The design became the standard mechanism used in striking clocks going forward, right through to present day. As an inventor in his own right, Tompion is credited with creating the cylinder escapement in 1695. This design allowed for the making of a thinner watch and was later perfected for use in watches by his protégé Graham in 1726. For an example, see the Gold Cylinder Watch by Graham, which is hallmarked 1733 and is exhibited on Clocktime. An astute businessman, Tompion was keen to protect his designs, often making it difficult to access the movements of his timekeepers. For instance, Flamsteed was asked in 1675 to test the accuracy of a watch made by Tompion. He found it kept time to a minute a day but complained that the latches had been filed off so he could not inspect the mechanism. Tompion’s clock movements are often purposefully difficult to access as well. Royal patrons Over time, Tompion cultivated an extensive and wealthy clientele, enjoying the patronage of four successive sovereigns: Charles II (b. 1630, d. 1685) James II (b. 1633, d. 1701), William III (b. 1650, d. 1702) and Mary II (b. 1662, d. 1694), and Queen Anne (b. 1665, d.1714) and her husband Prince George of Denmark (b. 1653, d. 1708). Examples of his work can still be found in the Royal Collection today, including longcase clocks, bracket clocks and barometers. Unfortunately, the tremendous prestige that came with royal patronage did not necessarily equate to prompt payment or, indeed, payment at all in some cases. On occasion Tompion did struggle with recouping the considerable costs of manufacturing royal commissions. For example, Prince George of Denmark’s sudden death in 1708 caused some financial disruption. From 1702, the prince was a major source of Tompion’s income and is described by antiquarian and horologist Richard Garnier as one of Tompion’s regular and ‘most ambitious’ royal patrons.[15] The timekeepers that he ordered from Tompion are known as the ‘Denmark group’.[16] These include the Sidereal Tompion Regulator mentioned above. This regulator was completed just after the prince’s death, and it is highly unlikely that Tompion was paid for this commission. The bill would have been forwarded to the prince’s widow, Queen Anne. Records from the Treasury, dated to 19 May 1703, indicate that Anne did not share her deceased husband’s interest in horology. The Queen reads the petition of Thomas Tompion praying payment of 564l. 15s. 0d. due to him for clocks, watches &c. presented by the late King [William III] to the Duke of Florence. The Queen’s reply is her Majesty has no occasion for his clocks and watches.[17] This sentiment, combined with the evidence that the Sidereal Tompion Regulator remained in Tompion’s premises for some time and was resold later, indicate that Anne most certainly did not pay her husband’s bill. Fortunately, Tompion had the capital to withstand such a loss.[18] A thoroughly modern manufacturer As mentioned above, Tompion was the first maker (of any kind of product) to apply mass production methods to his manufacturing process. From the early 1680s, he used serial numbers to track his output.[19] These numbers are engraved and punch-numbered on his products, typically on the dials and backplates of his timekeepers. Tompion also used machines to make gears and other components. He also supplemented his revenue by selling components, such as whole movements and clock cases, to other makers. Additionally, he subcontracted the making of components to other makers, thus outsourcing the manufacture of parts and even whole movements, which were then finished in his workshop.[20] He also ordered his clock cases in advance, stocking every case component, from caddy shapes to a range of veneers, in his workshop.[21] Thanks to these processes, the cases of clocks in Tompion’s numbered series can be identified as types. These case types are identified by characteristics that appear during different phases of Tompion’s career, such as (i) the construction of the hood, (ii) the case finish, (iii) identical scratch-mould tooling marks on the hood and case, and (iv) the use of the same castings that were produced for Tompion’s longcases.[22] Further, the style of these characteristics correlates to their date of manufacture. For example, Taylor explains that early unnumbered Tompion longcases, as well as numbered longcases up to the 200s and the start of the 300s, are all made in the same way, with convex mouldings between the hood and the trunk.[23] It was around 1697 that Tompion introduced his fully developed Type 3 longcases. Antiquarian and horologist Jonathan Carter argues that the use of a ‘regal’ flat front-and-back bell upstand is an almost ubiquitous feature of Tompion’s special cases produced during the late 1690s and early 1700s, which is when the Millbourn Tompion Longcase No. 333 was produced. This is one of the reasons why we can confidently categorise the Millbourn Tompion’s case as a Type 3 case. Tompion’s top-of-the-line Type 3 cases are characterised by forward-sliding hoods, a hood door and large caddy tops. They also do not have traditional convex mouldings. Instead, they have concave mouldings that create a smooth visual line, in which the trunk blends seamlessly into the hood and the base. This smooth line differentiated Tompion’s cases from those of Fromanteel, one of his main competitors, as well as from his own case forms that had come before. This was how Tompion made sure that his product looked modern. It is also how he subsequently advanced decorative fashions and designs. The Millbourn Tompion is a pristine example of Tompion’s fashion-forward, special Type 3 case. The Sidereal Tompion Regulator also has a Type 3 case, albeit a thriftier version with a simple ebony veneer. The production methods described above saved time and money, not only for Tompion, but also for the makers who sourced components from him. They also meant that customers could order a standard case type and embellish it (or not) with added extras. Every bit the savvy businessman, this methodology allowed Tompion to cater to customers of different means and tastes and with a range of requirements. In addition to high-specification commissions, he produced many low-specification, humble clocks for the gentry.[24] These clocks typically ran independently for a shorter period; examples include 30-hour and 8 day duration longcases. By way of comparison, his more expensive clocks, such as the Millbourn Tompion Longcase, could run as long as 30 days before requiring to be wound. Passing on skills to the next generation Between 1673 and 1699, Tompion took on 23 apprentices. This is an extraordinarily large number, as most makers only took in only a few apprentices throughout their entire career. In fact, Tompion’s workshop was such a hub of industry that in the space of one year, in 1695, he had 14 apprentices living in his household. However, only two of these aspiring young clockmakers became Tompion’s protégés and partners. In 1687, Edward Banger joined Tompion’s household and workshop as an apprentice. After completing his apprenticeship, he continued to work for Tompion as a journeyman. In 1694, Banger married Tompion’s niece, Margaret Kent, and by this time he was firmly Tompion’s protégé. Tompion took Banger into partnership by 1701.[25] From this date, Banger assumed more and more responsibility, and clocks produced between 1701 and 1708 are signed Tompion and Banger.[26] These include eight of the 14 clocks in the Denmark group. In 1708, the partnership between Tompion and Banger came to a dramatic and abrupt end. No details of what caused the split survive. Completed this same year, the Sidereal Tompion Regulator appears to be one of the last productions to bear the Tompion–Banger signature. The break between the partners appears to have been sudden, bitter and irrevocable, because Tompion deliberately covered the Tompion–Banger signature on all remaining stock with his silver Tompion-signature plaques, effectively rebranding his production and writing Banger out of history.[27] Fortunately for Tompion, there was another worthy successor to his clockmaking dynasty waiting in the wings. George Graham had joined Tompion’s business as early as 1695, the year he finished his apprenticeship to Henry Aske. By 1704, the young clockmaker had become Tompion’s new protégé and also joined the Tompion family by marrying Tompion’s niece, Elizabeth Tompion, that same year. By 1712, Graham was taken into partnership by Tompion, four years after the master clockmaker’s split with Banger. Apparently, Tompion’s anger at Banger did not mellow with time. When he took Graham into partnership, he continued and amended the rebranding of his Banger–Tompion output with silver Tompion–Graham plaques. This practice appears to have continued until Graham took over the business, following Tompion’s death in 1713. When Tompion died, Graham inherited his mentor’s business and went on to enjoy a long career as a highly respected maker in his own right. One of Graham’s watches, the exquisite Graham Gold Cylinder Watch, which was made in 1733, is exhibited on Clocktime. Thomas Tompion is buried in the central aisle of Westminster Abbey. In 1751, Graham was buried with him. During his lifetime, Tompion raised the standards of clock and watch making. These standards would not to be equalled for many years to come. As stated at the beginning of this account, no other maker had such a profound effect upon the early clockmaking market. Dr John C Taylor, Creator and Executive Director of Clocktime Dr Kristin Leith, Senior Curator of Clocktime March 2025 End Notes [1] Evans et al. 2013; Evans 2006; Symonds 1951; Taylor 2004. [2] Dawson et al. 1994 [1982]; Symonds 1951. [3] Boney 1982; Robey 2005. [4] Carter 2022, 212–221, Catalogue No. 31; Ende et al. 2004, 260–261; Evans et al. 2013, 534–535; Garnier and Carter 2015, 34–35; Neilson 1977, 214–216; Roberts 1998, 110–112; Roberts 2003, 178–179. [5] Only two Tompion tower clocks are known: the 30 hour clock from Hampton Court, Leominster, and the 8-day clock from Brome Hall (now demolished), near the Suffolk/Norfolk boundary. [6] London Records Office Ass Box 25/9/27. Water Lane, the first location of Tompion’s premises no longer exists. [7] Garnier and Hollis 2018, 354, Catalogue No. 108; Symonds 1940, 1951; Taylor 2018, 33, Exhibit No. 108. [8] Darken 2003, 208–211; Evans 2006, 77; Evans et al. 2013, 474–475, 604; Carter 2021, 138–143. [9] Carter 2022, 212–221, Catalogue No. 31; Ende et al. 2004, 260–261; Evans et al. 2013, 534v535; Garnier and Carter 2015, 34–35; Neilson 1977, 214–216; Roberts 1998, 110–112; Roberts 2003, 178–179. [10] Dawson et al. 1994 [1982]; Symonds 1951. [11] Garnier 2015, 34–35; Carter 2022, 212. [12] Dawson 1948, 58. [13] Although Tompion did not continue making this type of escapement, the design was eventually refined by his protégé, George Graham in 1715. [14] Robey 2005, 17. [15] Garnier and Carter 2015, 34–35. [16] Carter 2022, 220. [17] Garnier 2015, 34–35; Carter 2022, 212 and 216. [18] Not all clockmakers could sustain such a financial hit. For instance, David Ramsay, the renowned Scottish watch- and clockmaker who was appointed as the first Master of the Worshipful Company of Clockmakers in 1631 and was royal clockmaker to two Kings, faired much worse. King James I and VI was notorious for late payments to his employees, Ramsay included. James’s heir, King Charles I, was no better. By the end of his reign, he owed Ramsay some £2000 for unpaid wages and commissions. In 1641, Ramsay’s debt became untenable, and he was incarcerated in in the Gatehouse Prison for debtors. Ramsay never financially recovered. [19] Evans et al. 2013; Symonds 1951; Taylor et al. 2019, 5. [20] Carter 2022, 202 and 203. [21] Evans et al. 2013, chapter 2; Carter 2021, 162 and 166. [22] Carter 2022, 202 and 203. [23] See the Millbourn Tompion Video, featuring Dr John C. Taylor here, on Clocktime. Early Tompion clock cases have the same case form as the first longcases produced by clockmaker Ahasuerus Fromanteel. For an example of Fromanteel’s early case design see the Norfolk Fromanteel Longcase made around 1660. It is one of the first Fromanteel longcases. Garnier and Hollis 2018, 81–114 and 175. [24] Evans et al. 2013. [25] Evans et al. 2013, 152. [26] Evans et al. 2013, 152–153. [27] Evans et al. 2013, 113 and 153. It is also likely that all stock watch dial centres with joint signatures were scrapped. Also see the Clocktime video entitled The Sidereal Tompion Regulator, featuring Dr John C. Taylor OBE. References Boney, G. September 1982. ‘Tompion–Quare Collaboration’. Antiquarian Horology. Carter, J. 2021. The John C Taylor Collection: Part I (Selling Exhibition Catalogue, Carter Marsh & Co.). Winchester: Carter Marsh & Co. Carter, J. 2022. The John C Taylor Collection: Part III (Selling Exhibition Catalogue, Carter Marsh & Co). Winchester: Carter Marsh & Co. Darken, J. (editor). 2003. Horological Masterworks: English 17th century clocks from private collections. London: Antiquarian Horological Society. Dawson, P. 1948. ‘An early clock by Tompion’ in Antique Collector. Dawson, P. G., C. B. Drover and D. W. Parkes. 1994 [1982]. Early English Clocks: A discussion of domestic clocks up to the beginning of the eighteenth century. Woodbridge: The Antique Collectors’ Club. Ende, H. van der, J. C. Taylor and F. Van Kersen. 2004. Huygens’ Legacy: The golden age of the pendulum clock (Exhibition Catalogue). Isle of Man: Fromanteel Ltd. Evans, J. L. 2006. Thomas Tompion at the Dial and Three Crowns. Ticehurst: Antiquarian Horological Society. Evans, J., J. Carter and B. Wright. 2013. Thomas Tompion – 300 Years: A celebration of the life and work of Thomas Tompion. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Walter Lane Publishing. Garnier, R. and J. Carter. 2015. The Golden Age of English Horology: Masterpieces from the Tom Scott Collection. Winchester: The Square Press. Garnier, R. and L. Hollis. 2018. Innovation & Collaboration: the early development of the pendulum clock in London. Isle of Man: Fromanteel Ltd. Neilson, M. 1977. ‘Important sidereal regulator by Tompion & Banger’ in Antiquarian Horology, 214–216. Pollard, M. and C. Heron. 1996. ‘The Chemical Study of Metals’ in Archaeological Chemistry (eds. M. Pollard and C. Heron), 220–238. London: RSC Paperback Series, Royal Society of Chemistry. Roberts, D. 1998. British Longcase Clocks. Atglen, PA, USA: Schiffer Publishing, Ltd. Roberts, D. 2003. Precision Pendulum Clocks: The question for accurate timekeeping in England. West Chester, PA: Schiffer Publishing. Robey, J. 2005. ‘Who invented rack-and-snail striking? The early development of repeating and rack striking’ in Antiquarian Horology (March), 1–18. Symonds, R. W. 1940. Masterpieces of English Furniture and Clocks. Symonds, R. W. 1951. Thomas Tompion: His life and work 1639–1713. London: B.T. Battsford Ltd. Taylor, J. C. 2004. ‘Thomas Tompion’s spring clock innovations’ in Antiquarian Horology. Taylor, J. C. 2018. Innovation & Collaboration: Exhibition guide. Isle of Man: Fromanteel Ltd. Taylor, J. C. and K. Leith (with contributions by T Phillipson). 2019. The Luxury of Time: Clocks from 1550–1750. Isle of Man: Fromanteel Ltd. Todd, W. 1977. ‘Letter’ in Antiquarian Horology 10:2, 366. Further Reading Dawson, P., C. B. Drover and D. W. Parkes. 2003. Early English Clocks. Suffolk: Antique Collectors Club.
